Excerpts from the New Testament Reference Guide
From New Testament Characters
MATTHEW
This small collection of biographical sketches of New Testament characters would be incomplete without at least mentioning the Apostle Matthew. One of the Twelve, the New Testament opens with the Gospel that bears his name; besides John, he is the only one of the Twelve Apostles that is believed to have authored a Gospel on the life of Jesus. Luke and Mark were merely second hand disciples.
Since nearly everyone dates the Gospel of John to be late first-century, if Matthew did write something about the life and teachings of Jesus he would have been the first. Jerome, in his Lives of Illustrious Men, makes this very claim, even relating that it was originally written in Hebrew, being translated into Greek later by some anonymous individual. In fact, all of the early Church Fathers of notoriety (Papias, Origen, Jerome, Epiphanias, and Eusebius, to name a few) refer to a Gospel of the Hebrews which was written by Matthew in Hebrew. Most biblical scholars today do not accept these claims for good reason, but one can never be sure.
In the New Testament, he is sometimes called Levi, and is portrayed as a tax collector before leaving his booth to follow Jesus. This is one point in favor of the case for Matthew being the first to write. The Acts of the Apostles accuses the followers of Jesus, Peter and John, as being uneducated (Acts 4:13), which probably means they couldn’t read or write. Matthew on the other hand, being a tax collector, would have been literate. Beyond these few but significant details, little else is known about him.
KING HEROD THE GREAT
In the year 37 BCE, the Roman Senate appointed the son of an Arab leader, Herod, as the king of the Roman province of Judea. He reigned until his death in 4 BCE. This Herod became known as King Herod the Great for his many architectural and military achievements.
The historian Josephus explains that Herod sought to make for himself a name that would last forever, and so endeavored to build some of the most magnificent structures possible. He built an amazing sea port in the Caesarean harbor that was erected out of the water. Many fortresses and civil structures in first-century Judea were a credit to his building aspirations. His most crowning project, however, was to expand the Temple complex even bigger than in had been in Solomon’s day. He succeeded, but his work was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE. After more than two millennia, some of the stones used to build these structures are still standing today.
Most of what is known about Herod the Great comes from Josephus. The details offered regarding his person paint the picture of a visionary, passionate, volatile, and often maniacal leader. He had many wives, and of course many children. For a king during this time to have many sons was trouble: siblings of royal lineage had a tendency to fight over who would be the successor. The children of Herod were no exception. Herod finally had one of his wives and two of his sons executed on suspicion of treason and coup.
According to the Gospel of Matthew, this Herod was reigning when Jesus was born. In the account, he attempts to keep the promised Messiah from taking his throne by killing all the male children less than two years of age.
Josephus relates that he died of a horrible disease. Since he knew himself to be a hard ruler and not loved by the people, he ordered his men to take the elders, who were loved, and gather them into one of the Judean-Roman theatres to be executed upon his death. In this way the people would weep, even if it wasn’t really for him. Even though there is no evidence that the order was actually carried out, it certainly reveals the kind of person he was.
This small collection of biographical sketches of New Testament characters would be incomplete without at least mentioning the Apostle Matthew. One of the Twelve, the New Testament opens with the Gospel that bears his name; besides John, he is the only one of the Twelve Apostles that is believed to have authored a Gospel on the life of Jesus. Luke and Mark were merely second hand disciples.
Since nearly everyone dates the Gospel of John to be late first-century, if Matthew did write something about the life and teachings of Jesus he would have been the first. Jerome, in his Lives of Illustrious Men, makes this very claim, even relating that it was originally written in Hebrew, being translated into Greek later by some anonymous individual. In fact, all of the early Church Fathers of notoriety (Papias, Origen, Jerome, Epiphanias, and Eusebius, to name a few) refer to a Gospel of the Hebrews which was written by Matthew in Hebrew. Most biblical scholars today do not accept these claims for good reason, but one can never be sure.
In the New Testament, he is sometimes called Levi, and is portrayed as a tax collector before leaving his booth to follow Jesus. This is one point in favor of the case for Matthew being the first to write. The Acts of the Apostles accuses the followers of Jesus, Peter and John, as being uneducated (Acts 4:13), which probably means they couldn’t read or write. Matthew on the other hand, being a tax collector, would have been literate. Beyond these few but significant details, little else is known about him.
KING HEROD THE GREAT
In the year 37 BCE, the Roman Senate appointed the son of an Arab leader, Herod, as the king of the Roman province of Judea. He reigned until his death in 4 BCE. This Herod became known as King Herod the Great for his many architectural and military achievements.
The historian Josephus explains that Herod sought to make for himself a name that would last forever, and so endeavored to build some of the most magnificent structures possible. He built an amazing sea port in the Caesarean harbor that was erected out of the water. Many fortresses and civil structures in first-century Judea were a credit to his building aspirations. His most crowning project, however, was to expand the Temple complex even bigger than in had been in Solomon’s day. He succeeded, but his work was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE. After more than two millennia, some of the stones used to build these structures are still standing today.
Most of what is known about Herod the Great comes from Josephus. The details offered regarding his person paint the picture of a visionary, passionate, volatile, and often maniacal leader. He had many wives, and of course many children. For a king during this time to have many sons was trouble: siblings of royal lineage had a tendency to fight over who would be the successor. The children of Herod were no exception. Herod finally had one of his wives and two of his sons executed on suspicion of treason and coup.
According to the Gospel of Matthew, this Herod was reigning when Jesus was born. In the account, he attempts to keep the promised Messiah from taking his throne by killing all the male children less than two years of age.
Josephus relates that he died of a horrible disease. Since he knew himself to be a hard ruler and not loved by the people, he ordered his men to take the elders, who were loved, and gather them into one of the Judean-Roman theatres to be executed upon his death. In this way the people would weep, even if it wasn’t really for him. Even though there is no evidence that the order was actually carried out, it certainly reveals the kind of person he was.
From Prominent Orthodox Christian Leaders
HEGESIPPIUS (Died c. 180)
Hegesippius was the earliest Church chronicler. He composed a five volume History of the Church from Jesus down to his own time. Like the works of Papias, however, almost everything he wrote is now lost and probably destroyed.
The fragments of his History that remain give the most details about any Apostle of Jesus, James the brother of the Lord. Both Jerome and Eusebius make copious usage of Hegesippius in regard to the history relating to the life and martyrdom of James, first bishop of Jerusalem.
He also speaks about the other brother of Jesus called Judas, as well as some information on the early divisions believed to have been heretical.
ORIGEN (c. 185-253)
There is not a man among the early Church Fathers who compares to the stature and genius of Origen. He was surnamed Adamantius for his rigid, ascetic lifestyle. Being well learned in the philosophy of the Greeks, he was revered as an intellectual in both the secular and Christian communities of his day. Multitalented, he understood geometry, arithmetic, music, dialectics (the art of debate), rhetoric, and languages.
During a persecution of Christians in which his father, Leonidas, lost his life, Origen was forced to provide for his six brothers and widowed mother. Only eighteen years of age, the bishop of Alexandria, Demetrius, assigned him to teach the Catechetes (those being prepared for baptism). After a few years he started his own philosophical school in Alexandria, making profit on his works of philosophy. Eventually, he became so well known that people came from everywhere to hear him, even the Emperor’s mother. He also became a prolific Christian writer. Hiring seven stenographers, he dictated many of his books, sometimes simultaneously. Epiphanius claimed that he wrote about 6,000 works (chapters) in his lifetime.
Furthermore, he was the first to give full intellectual form to the entire system of the Christian faith in theological terms. One of his most important works, called On First Principles, is a landmark of Christian theology that set the foundation for later Christian theological giants, such as Augustine. Ironically, however, he was also very critical of the biblical text in terms of history. In his commentary on the Gospel of John, he explains why many of the anecdotes regarding Jesus in the Gospels simply could not have happened. In his view, it was the text of the Bible that was inspired of God, not the history. Consequently, he excelled in interpreting the Bible allegorically. Still today, the way in which many Christian denominations interpret the Bible metaphorically and the Old Testament as typology are based upon his ideas.
Having been tortured in the persecution of the Emperor Decius, he was released but died shortly afterward at the age of about seventy years due to his injuries. Though his influence upon the formation of Christianity as it is known today is unparalleled, he maintained some beliefs that later Church authorities deemed heretical. He believed in the pre-existence and transmigration of souls (some form of reincarnation) and also that all of Hell would be emptied, sinners forgiven, even Satan pardoned. For these reasons Origen was staunchly opposed by his peers. He never attained the status of a saint, but is usually recognized as a Church Father. Regardless of how he is viewed, however, his ideas triumphed; his wit and passion fed the Christian faith and even defined it.
Hegesippius was the earliest Church chronicler. He composed a five volume History of the Church from Jesus down to his own time. Like the works of Papias, however, almost everything he wrote is now lost and probably destroyed.
The fragments of his History that remain give the most details about any Apostle of Jesus, James the brother of the Lord. Both Jerome and Eusebius make copious usage of Hegesippius in regard to the history relating to the life and martyrdom of James, first bishop of Jerusalem.
He also speaks about the other brother of Jesus called Judas, as well as some information on the early divisions believed to have been heretical.
ORIGEN (c. 185-253)
There is not a man among the early Church Fathers who compares to the stature and genius of Origen. He was surnamed Adamantius for his rigid, ascetic lifestyle. Being well learned in the philosophy of the Greeks, he was revered as an intellectual in both the secular and Christian communities of his day. Multitalented, he understood geometry, arithmetic, music, dialectics (the art of debate), rhetoric, and languages.
During a persecution of Christians in which his father, Leonidas, lost his life, Origen was forced to provide for his six brothers and widowed mother. Only eighteen years of age, the bishop of Alexandria, Demetrius, assigned him to teach the Catechetes (those being prepared for baptism). After a few years he started his own philosophical school in Alexandria, making profit on his works of philosophy. Eventually, he became so well known that people came from everywhere to hear him, even the Emperor’s mother. He also became a prolific Christian writer. Hiring seven stenographers, he dictated many of his books, sometimes simultaneously. Epiphanius claimed that he wrote about 6,000 works (chapters) in his lifetime.
Furthermore, he was the first to give full intellectual form to the entire system of the Christian faith in theological terms. One of his most important works, called On First Principles, is a landmark of Christian theology that set the foundation for later Christian theological giants, such as Augustine. Ironically, however, he was also very critical of the biblical text in terms of history. In his commentary on the Gospel of John, he explains why many of the anecdotes regarding Jesus in the Gospels simply could not have happened. In his view, it was the text of the Bible that was inspired of God, not the history. Consequently, he excelled in interpreting the Bible allegorically. Still today, the way in which many Christian denominations interpret the Bible metaphorically and the Old Testament as typology are based upon his ideas.
Having been tortured in the persecution of the Emperor Decius, he was released but died shortly afterward at the age of about seventy years due to his injuries. Though his influence upon the formation of Christianity as it is known today is unparalleled, he maintained some beliefs that later Church authorities deemed heretical. He believed in the pre-existence and transmigration of souls (some form of reincarnation) and also that all of Hell would be emptied, sinners forgiven, even Satan pardoned. For these reasons Origen was staunchly opposed by his peers. He never attained the status of a saint, but is usually recognized as a Church Father. Regardless of how he is viewed, however, his ideas triumphed; his wit and passion fed the Christian faith and even defined it.
From Prominent Gnostic Leaders
CERINTHUS (c. 55-100)
Irenaeus, Hippolytus, and the Church historian Eusebius all mention a man named Cerinthus as the founder of a first century group of heretics. There is an interesting anecdote told about the Apostle John and his encounter with this man. It is said that John, upon entering a bath house in Ephesus and realizing that Cerinthus was inside, quickly fled the place without bathing. As he left, he encouraged others to do the same lest the bath house collapse because Cerinthus, the enemy of the truth, was inside. Epiphanius, in his Panarion, gives the most details about his life and teachings. He relates that Cerinthus was as early as the Apostles Paul and Peter, and personally opposed both.
Being educated in the religion of the Egyptians, Cerinthus combined his Jewish sympathies with foreign ideas of cosmogony. He believed that the physical world was not created by the Primary Deity, but by a lower deity who was ignorant of the Supreme Ruler of the universe, which is a belief that appears in every form of Gnosticism.
Unlike Gnostics to come, however, Cerinthus did not view the Creator as an evil deity; rather, as a just god, but simply ignorant of the Supreme Ruler. Thus, keeping the laws of the Old Testament, of the Creator, was part of the means to the Supreme Ruler of the universe. He advocated keeping the Law as well as following Christ who revealed the Supreme Ruler. For this reason, some do not classify Cerinthus as a true Gnostic; for he did not disdain the Creator as future Gnostics would. However, enough of his beliefs are similar to future forms of Gnosticism to be certain that he had an influence.
Finally, besides Simon Magus (and his school), Cerinthus is the earliest Gnostic leader on record; and he is a mixture of Judaism and Gnosticism (but closer to Gnosticism). He is probably not the father of the Gnostic idea of the Supreme Ruler of the universe, and that the Creator (Old Testament god) is a lower deity. Simon Magus evinced a very similar cosmogony, only with a harsher, more evil view of the Creator. What set Simon apart from the rest, however, is that he actually claimed to be the incarnation of the Supreme Ruler; whereas Cerinthus and other notable Gnostic leaders did not.
Irenaeus, Hippolytus, and the Church historian Eusebius all mention a man named Cerinthus as the founder of a first century group of heretics. There is an interesting anecdote told about the Apostle John and his encounter with this man. It is said that John, upon entering a bath house in Ephesus and realizing that Cerinthus was inside, quickly fled the place without bathing. As he left, he encouraged others to do the same lest the bath house collapse because Cerinthus, the enemy of the truth, was inside. Epiphanius, in his Panarion, gives the most details about his life and teachings. He relates that Cerinthus was as early as the Apostles Paul and Peter, and personally opposed both.
Being educated in the religion of the Egyptians, Cerinthus combined his Jewish sympathies with foreign ideas of cosmogony. He believed that the physical world was not created by the Primary Deity, but by a lower deity who was ignorant of the Supreme Ruler of the universe, which is a belief that appears in every form of Gnosticism.
Unlike Gnostics to come, however, Cerinthus did not view the Creator as an evil deity; rather, as a just god, but simply ignorant of the Supreme Ruler. Thus, keeping the laws of the Old Testament, of the Creator, was part of the means to the Supreme Ruler of the universe. He advocated keeping the Law as well as following Christ who revealed the Supreme Ruler. For this reason, some do not classify Cerinthus as a true Gnostic; for he did not disdain the Creator as future Gnostics would. However, enough of his beliefs are similar to future forms of Gnosticism to be certain that he had an influence.
Finally, besides Simon Magus (and his school), Cerinthus is the earliest Gnostic leader on record; and he is a mixture of Judaism and Gnosticism (but closer to Gnosticism). He is probably not the father of the Gnostic idea of the Supreme Ruler of the universe, and that the Creator (Old Testament god) is a lower deity. Simon Magus evinced a very similar cosmogony, only with a harsher, more evil view of the Creator. What set Simon apart from the rest, however, is that he actually claimed to be the incarnation of the Supreme Ruler; whereas Cerinthus and other notable Gnostic leaders did not.
From Early Witnesses to Christian History
FLAVIUS JOSEPHUS (c. 37-100)
The works of Flavius Josephus—the famous Jewish historian of the first-century—are the most important documents that give witness to the birth of Christianity—of Jewish, Christian, or secular sources. He wrote two major works. The first was the Wars of the Jews; mainly detailing the events surrounding the Jewish-Roman war from 66-74 when the Temple was razed to the ground. The second work was a very lengthy history from the creation of the world to his own time, called the Antiquities of the Jews. In this second work, he mentions John the Baptist, Jesus, and even James the brother of Jesus.
Born of the Levitical priestly family as Joseph the son of Matthew, he was trained as a priest and—if his own report can be believed—he excelled in the learning of the Hebrew Bible beyond the skill of his peers. He was still a young man when the war with the Romans broke out in the year 66. Recruited as a general in the Jewish army that fought in the Galilee, he was privy to first hand eye witness accounts of what took place in the war, as well as being an eye witness himself.
According to his own account in the Wars of the Jews, he eventually surrendered to the Roman general Vespasian, and then promptly predicted him to be the next Emperor. Shortly afterward, the general received word that the Emperor Nero was dead (probably by his own hand). The troops insisted upon making Vespasian the next Emperor. At first resisting the promotion, he finally accepted and then remembered the prediction of Joseph. Thus, he released Joseph and brought him into his family in Roman style, giving him his own family name, Flavius. It was in this position as the bondman of the new Roman Emperor, and under his new Roman name, Flavius Josephus, that he would write his great works of Jewish history under the auspices of Rome.
Besides his vivid details regarding the war with the Romans and the destruction of the Temple, his histories also give details on the various sects of Judaism existing in Judaea contemporaneously. Having been born shortly after the birth of Christianity, he must have come in contact with Christians in some form or another. He claims that he tried all forms of Judaism in his day. He learned with the Pharisees, the Sadducees and even the ascetic adherents of Judaism called the Essenes, a group of Jews who probably authored the Dead Sea Scrolls. Josephus explains the beliefs of each of these sects, but he gives the most information on the Essenes, whom he appears to admire a great deal.
Although he does not claim to have learned among the Christian movement, it could be assumed that he did under another name. The Christians were not called “Christians” until decades later in the Greek city of Antioch, outside the Holy Land. Josephus claims that there were various forms of Essenes, and much of what he describes about them match the Gospels’ depiction of Jesus and that of the early believers in the book of Acts. One may assume, therefore, that Christianity—as it branched off from Judaism—was more closely related to the Jewish sect of Essenes than that of the Pharisees or Sadducees.
For these contributions, and his detailed and comprehensive accounts of the histories of the Jewish people, even from ancient times, makes Josephus a valuable source for Jews, Christians, and scholars alike. Like Philo, he was influenced by the Hellenism still present in the Roman world; but unlike Philo, he was born in Judea, and learned his own native tongue—Hebrew. Thus, being also learned in the Greek language, Josephus served as a skilled historian of the Jewish world to a Greek audience.
The works of Flavius Josephus—the famous Jewish historian of the first-century—are the most important documents that give witness to the birth of Christianity—of Jewish, Christian, or secular sources. He wrote two major works. The first was the Wars of the Jews; mainly detailing the events surrounding the Jewish-Roman war from 66-74 when the Temple was razed to the ground. The second work was a very lengthy history from the creation of the world to his own time, called the Antiquities of the Jews. In this second work, he mentions John the Baptist, Jesus, and even James the brother of Jesus.
Born of the Levitical priestly family as Joseph the son of Matthew, he was trained as a priest and—if his own report can be believed—he excelled in the learning of the Hebrew Bible beyond the skill of his peers. He was still a young man when the war with the Romans broke out in the year 66. Recruited as a general in the Jewish army that fought in the Galilee, he was privy to first hand eye witness accounts of what took place in the war, as well as being an eye witness himself.
According to his own account in the Wars of the Jews, he eventually surrendered to the Roman general Vespasian, and then promptly predicted him to be the next Emperor. Shortly afterward, the general received word that the Emperor Nero was dead (probably by his own hand). The troops insisted upon making Vespasian the next Emperor. At first resisting the promotion, he finally accepted and then remembered the prediction of Joseph. Thus, he released Joseph and brought him into his family in Roman style, giving him his own family name, Flavius. It was in this position as the bondman of the new Roman Emperor, and under his new Roman name, Flavius Josephus, that he would write his great works of Jewish history under the auspices of Rome.
Besides his vivid details regarding the war with the Romans and the destruction of the Temple, his histories also give details on the various sects of Judaism existing in Judaea contemporaneously. Having been born shortly after the birth of Christianity, he must have come in contact with Christians in some form or another. He claims that he tried all forms of Judaism in his day. He learned with the Pharisees, the Sadducees and even the ascetic adherents of Judaism called the Essenes, a group of Jews who probably authored the Dead Sea Scrolls. Josephus explains the beliefs of each of these sects, but he gives the most information on the Essenes, whom he appears to admire a great deal.
Although he does not claim to have learned among the Christian movement, it could be assumed that he did under another name. The Christians were not called “Christians” until decades later in the Greek city of Antioch, outside the Holy Land. Josephus claims that there were various forms of Essenes, and much of what he describes about them match the Gospels’ depiction of Jesus and that of the early believers in the book of Acts. One may assume, therefore, that Christianity—as it branched off from Judaism—was more closely related to the Jewish sect of Essenes than that of the Pharisees or Sadducees.
For these contributions, and his detailed and comprehensive accounts of the histories of the Jewish people, even from ancient times, makes Josephus a valuable source for Jews, Christians, and scholars alike. Like Philo, he was influenced by the Hellenism still present in the Roman world; but unlike Philo, he was born in Judea, and learned his own native tongue—Hebrew. Thus, being also learned in the Greek language, Josephus served as a skilled historian of the Jewish world to a Greek audience.
